1️⃣st place at SIGIR eCom Challenge 2020
2️⃣nd place and Best Paper Award at WSDM Booking.com Challenge 2021
2️⃣nd place at Twitter Recsys Challenge 2021
3️⃣rd place at KDD Cup 2021
Cleora is a genus of moths in the family Geometridae. Their scientific name derives from the Ancient Greek geo γῆ or γαῖα "the earth", and metron μέτρον "measure" in reference to the way their larvae, or "inchworms", appear to "measure the earth" as they move along in a looping fashion.
Cleora is a general-purpose model for efficient, scalable learning of stable and inductive entity embeddings for heterogeneous relational data.
Installation
pip install pycleora
Build instructions
# prepare python env
pip install maturin
# Install pycleora in current env (meant for development)
maturin develop
# Usage example below. More examples in examples/ folder.
Cleora is now available as a Python package pycleora. Key improvements compared to the previous version:
- performance optimizations: ~10x faster embedding times
- performance optimizations: significantly reduced memory usage
- latest research: improved embedding quality
- new feature: can create graphs from a Python
iteratorsin addition totsvfiles - new feature: seamless integration with
NumPy - new feature: item attributes support via custom embeddings initialization
- new feature: adjustable vector projection / normalization after each propagation step
Breaking changes:
- transient modifier not supported any more - creating
complex::reflexivecolumns for hypergraph embeddings, grouped by the transient entity gives better results.
from pycleora import SparseMatrix
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import random
# Generate example data
customers = [f"Customer_{i}" for i in range(1, 20)]
products = [f"Product_{j}" for j in range(1, 20)]
data = {
"customer": random.choices(customers, k=100),
"product": random.choices(products, k=100),
}
# Create DataFrame
df = pd.DataFrame(data)
# Create hyperedges
customer_products = df.groupby('customer')['product'].apply(list).values
# Convert to Cleora input format
cleora_input = map(lambda x: ' '.join(x), customer_products)
# Create Markov transition matrix for the hypergraph
mat = SparseMatrix.from_iterator(cleora_input, columns='complex::reflexive::product')
# Look at entity ids in the matrix, corresponding to embedding vectors
print(mat.entity_ids)
# ['Product_5', 'Product_3', 'Product_2', 'Product_4', 'Product_1']
# Initialize embedding vectors externally, using text, image, random vectors
# embeddings = ...
# Or use built-in random deterministic initialization
embeddings = mat.initialize_deterministically(1024)
# Perform Markov random walk, then normalize however many times we want
NUM_WALKS = 3 # The optimal number depends on the graph, typically between 3 and 7 yields good results
# lower values tend to capture co-occurrence, higher iterations capture substitutability in a context
for i in range(NUM_WALKS):
# Can propagate with a symmetric matrix as well, but left Markov is a great default
embeddings = mat.left_markov_propagate(embeddings)
# Normalize with L2 norm by default, for the embeddings to reside on a hypersphere. Can use standardization instead.
embeddings /= np.linalg.norm(embeddings, ord=2, axis=-1, keepdims=True)
# We're done, here are our embeddings
for entity, embedding in zip(mat.entity_ids, embeddings):
print(entity, embedding)
# We can now compare our embeddings with dot product (since they are L2 normalized)
print(np.dot(embeddings[0], embeddings[1]))
print(np.dot(embeddings[0], embeddings[2]))
print(np.dot(embeddings[0], embeddings[3]))
Q: What should I embed?
A: Any entities that interact with each other, co-occur or can be said to be present together in a given context. Examples can include: products in a shopping basket, locations frequented by the same people at similar times, employees collaborating together, chemical molecules being present in specific circumstances, proteins produced by the same bacteria, drug interactions, co-authors of the same academic papers, companies occurring together in the same LinkedIn profiles.
Q: How should I construct the input?
A: What works best is grouping entities co-occurring in a similar context, and feeding them in whitespace-separated lines using complex::reflexive modifier is a good idea. E.g. if you have product data, you can group the products by shopping baskets or by users. If you have urls, you can group them by browser sessions, of by (user, time window) pairs. Check out the usage example above. Grouping products by customers is just one possibility.
Q: Can I embed users and products simultaneously, to compare them with cosine similarity?
A: No, this is a methodologically wrong approach, stemming from outdated matrix factorization approaches. What you should do is come up with good product embeddings first, then create user embeddings from them. Feeding two columns e.g. user product into cleora will result in a bipartite graph. Similar products will be close to each other, similar users will be close to each other, but users and products will not necessarily be similar to each other.
Q: What embedding dimensionality to use?
A: The more, the better, but we typically work from 1024 to 4096. Memory is cheap and machines are powerful, so don't skimp on embedding size.
Q: How many iterations of Markov propagation should I use?
A: Depends on what you want to achieve. Low iterations (3) tend to approximate the co-occurrence matrix, while high iterations (7+) tend to give contextual similarity (think skip-gram but much more accurate and faster).
Q: How do I incorporate external information, e.g. entity metadata, images, texts into the embeddings?
A: Just initialize the embedding matrix with your own vectors coming from a VIT, setence-transformers, of a random projection of your numeric features. In that scenario low numbers of Markov iterations (1 to 3) tend to work best.
Q: My embeddings don't fit in memory, what do I do?
A: Cleora operates on dimensions independently. Initialize your embeddings with a smaller number of dimensions, run Cleora, persist to disk, then repeat. You can concatenate your resulting embedding vectors afterwards, but remember to normalize them afterwards!
Q: Is there a minimum number of entity occurrences?
A: No, an entity A co-occuring just 1 time with some other entity B will get a proper embedding, i.e. B will be the most similar to A. The other way around, A will be highly ranked among nearest neighbors of B, which may or may not be desirable, depending on your use case. Feel free to prune your input to Cleora to eliminate low-frequency items.
Q: Are there any edge cases where Cleora can fail?
A: Cleora works best for relatively sparse hypergraphs. If all your hyperedges contain some very common entity X, e.g. a shopping bag, then it will degrade the quality of embeddings by degenerating shortest paths in the random walk. It is a good practice to remove such entities from the hypergraph.
Q: How can Cleora be so fast and accurate at the same time?
A: Not using negative sampling is a great boon. By constructing the (sparse) Markov transition matrix, Cleora explicitly performs all possible random walks in a hypergraph in one big step (a single matrix multiplication). That's what we call a single iteration. We perform 3+ such iterations. Thanks to a highly efficient implementation in Rust, with special care for concurrency, memory layout and cache coherence, it is blazingly fast. Negative sampling or randomly selecting random walks tend to introduce a lot of noise - Cleora is free of those burdens.
Read the whitepaper "Cleora: A Simple, Strong and Scalable Graph Embedding Scheme"
Cleora embeds entities in n-dimensional spherical spaces utilizing extremely fast stable, iterative random projections, which allows for unparalleled performance and scalability.
Types of data which can be embedded include for example:
- heterogeneous undirected graphs
- heterogeneous undirected hypergraphs
- text and other categorical array data
- any combination of the above
!!! Disclaimer: the numbers below are for Cleora 1.x, new version is significantly faster, but yet have to re-run the benchmarks
Key competitive advantages of Cleora:
- more than 197x faster than DeepWalk
- ~4x-8x faster than PyTorch-BigGraph (depends on use case)
- star expansion, clique expansion, and no expansion support for hypergraphs
- quality of results outperforming or competitive with other embedding frameworks like PyTorch-BigGraph, GOSH, DeepWalk, LINE
- can embed extremely large graphs & hypergraphs on a single machine
Embedding times - example:
| Algorithm | FB dataset | RoadNet dataset | LiveJournal dataset |
| Cleora | 00:00:43 h | 00:21:59 h | 01:31:42 h |
| PyTorch-BigGraph | 00:04.33 h | 00:31:11 h | 07:10:00 h |
Link Prediction results - example:
| FB dataset | RoadNet dataset | LiveJournal dataset | ||||
| Algorithm | MRR | HitRate@10 | MRR | HitRate@10 | MRR | HitRate@10 |
| Cleora | 0.072 | 0.172 | 0.929 | 0.942 | 0.586 | 0.627 |
| PyTorch-BigGraph | 0.035 | 0.072 | 0.850 | 0.866 | 0.565 | 0.672 |
Cleora is built as a multi-purpose "just embed it" tool, suitable for many different data types and formats.
Cleora ingests a relational table of rows representing a typed and undirected heterogeneous hypergraph, which can contain multiple:
- typed categorical columns
- typed categorical array columns
For example a relational table representing shopping baskets may have the following columns:
user <\t> product <\t> store
With the input file containing values:
user_id <\t> product_id product_id product_id <\t> store_id
Every column has a type, which is used to determine whether spaces of identifiers between different columns are shared or distinct. It is possible for two columns to share a type, which is the case for homogeneous graphs:
user <\t> user
Based on the column format specification, Cleora performs:
- Star decomposition of hyper-edges
- Creation of pairwise graphs for all pairs of entity types
- Embedding of each graph
The final output of Cleora consists of multiple files for each (undirected) pair of entity types in the table.
Those embeddings can then be utilized in a novel way thanks to their dim-wise independence property, which is described further below.
The embeddings produced by Cleora are different from those produced by Node2vec, Word2vec, DeepWalk or other systems in this class by a number of key properties:
- efficiency - Cleora is two orders of magnitude faster than Node2Vec or DeepWalk
- inductivity - as Cleora embeddings of an entity are defined only by interactions with other entities, vectors for new entities can be computed on-the-fly
- updatability - refreshing a Cleora embedding for an entity is a very fast operation allowing for real-time updates without retraining
- stability - all starting vectors for entities are deterministic, which means that Cleora embeddings on similar datasets will end up being similar. Methods like Word2vec, Node2vec or DeepWalk return different results with every run.
- cross-dataset compositionality - thanks to stability of Cleora embeddings, embeddings of the same entity on multiple datasets can be combined by averaging, yielding meaningful vectors
- dim-wise independence - thanks to the process producing Cleora embeddings, every dimension is independent of others. This property allows for efficient and low-parameter method for combining multi-view embeddings with Conv1d layers.
- extreme parallelism and performance - Cleora is written in Rust utilizing thread-level parallelism for all calculations except input file loading. In practice this means that the embedding process is often faster than loading the input data.
The technical properties described above imply good production-readiness of Cleora, which from the end-user perspective can be summarized as follows:
- heterogeneous relational tables can be embedded without any artificial data pre-processing
- mixed interaction + text datasets can be embedded with ease
- cold start problem for new entities is non-existent
- real-time updates of the embeddings do not require any separate solutions
- multi-view embeddings work out of the box
- temporal, incremental embeddings are stable out of the box, with no need for re-alignment, rotations or other methods
- extremely large datasets are supported and can be embedded within seconds / minutes
!!! Disclaimer the documentation below is for Cleora 1.x, to be updated for 2.x
More information can be found in the full documentation.
For details contact us at [email protected]
Please cite our paper (and the respective papers of the methods used) if you use this code in your own work:
@article{DBLP:journals/corr/abs-2102-02302,
author = {Barbara Rychalska, Piotr Babel, Konrad Goluchowski, Andrzej Michalowski, Jacek Dabrowski},
title = {Cleora: {A} Simple, Strong and Scalable Graph Embedding Scheme},
journal = {CoRR},
year = {2021}
}
Synerise Cleora is MIT licensed, as found in the LICENSE file.
Pull requests are welcome.